Medical is the study of how the human body works and its diseases. It is a broad field of study which has many sub-fields. Some of these include anatomy, which is the study of all the parts of the body; physiology, which is the study of bodily processes; and pathology, which is the study of disease. There is also clinical medicine, which is the practice of treating patients; and public health, which studies threats to community health based on population analysis. There are also many specific fields within medical science such as endocrinology (study of hormones), epidemiology, genetics (study of genes and their impact on health), microbiology (study of organisms too small to see with the naked eye), pharmacology (study of pharmaceutical drugs) and neuroscience (study of the brain and nervous system). Many of these different areas of study intersect in clinical medicine. The process of medical decision-making starts with the history, symptoms, physical findings, laboratory or imaging results and specialist consultations. The synthesis of this information is then used to come up with a list of possible diagnoses, which may require further tests or treatment. Most medical doctors specialise, and there is a strong incentive to become expert in a particular area of medicine. This is in order to advance scientific knowledge, develop a better understanding of how the body works and to treat patients effectively. Specialisation is achieved through academic study, practical experience in hospitals and passing a medical examination. Each medical specialty has its own professional body or college, which grants a doctor a license to practise. The writing of a medical article is not for the faint hearted, but it can be rewarding. Writing articles about medical topics requires an in-depth understanding of the subject matter, and it is important to be interesting as well as accurate. However, how interesting an article should be is often dependent on the audience and the publisher’s objectives – some readers like lists or charts, others want thought-provoking, inspiring or reassuring content, while some are just looking for information they can use. Almost all medical articles follow a similar structure and format. This includes an abstract, introduction, literature review, methodology, research results, discussions and conclusions. Medical writing is governed by strict ethical and regulatory rules, and writers are discouraged from using unsubstantiated claims or statements of opinion. It is also important to remember that medical writing should not be construed as giving advice on the management of any medical or health condition. For this, you should always consult with a licensed physician. These guidelines are intended to help improve the quality of medical writing. They are not intended to replace professional editing or proofreading services.

Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. The enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of health is one of the fundamental rights of all human beings, without distinction of any kind. It is essential to the full development of the individual and the harmonious co-existence of peoples in a changing total environment. Health is dependent on the availability of adequate medical and other facilities and the free provision of these to all by their governments. Many factors influence health, including genetics, environment, lifestyle choices and life events. Health can be maintained or improved by engaging in health-promoting activities, such as regular exercise and proper diet, as well as avoiding unhealthful behaviors, such as smoking and excessive stress. Moreover, the health of a population can be affected by environmental and other factors, such as access to safe drinking water and adequate sanitation. A person’s definition of health may be as broad as “being comfortable and able to cope with life” or as narrow as “having a normal blood pressure and not having a fever.” The variety in definitions is partly due to the fact that, like other concepts, the notion of health makes sense mostly within its home context. A concept’s home context is the social, cultural or ideological framework in which a phenomenon is elaborated and understood. Generally, there are three qualities that characterize the lay perspective on health: wholeness, pragmatism and individualism. Wholeness refers to the view that health is a holistic phenomenon that is interwoven with all aspects of a person’s life, such as work and family functions. This perspective also emphasizes the importance of being able to choose the way one lives and the quality of relationships. Pragmatism, on the other hand, refers to the idea that health is a relative concept. A person can be healthy at one point in time, but not so at another. For example, if a person develops an allergy to a certain substance at one stage in his or her life, this substance can trigger an allergic reaction at a later stage in the same person. Finally, individualism refers to the belief that everyone has a different opinion about what constitutes health. This perspective is reflected in the different definitions of health that exist in today’s society, and it is also a feature of the digital environment. This is because different perspectives can co-exist at the same time, without any hierarchy or precedence. This is often called syncreticity and is a characteristic of the digital environment. The variety of approaches to health in the digital environment is an important aspect for analyzing health policy and practice. The Zagreb Andrija Stampar School of Public Health is proud to be part of this process. The school is committed to maintaining its position on the cutting edge of health understanding in present-day society. Its mission is to advance knowledge, understanding and education in public health.

Pharmacy is the science and practice of discovering, producing, preparing, dispensing, and reviewing medications to ensure safe, effective, and affordable use by patients. It also includes educating patients and healthcare professionals about the proper use of medicines and other health care services. It is a multidisciplinary scientific field that links medical sciences, pharmaceutical sciences, and natural sciences. The role of the pharmacist has changed dramatically since the development of new and better medicines. The scope for extemporaneous compounding has diminished, but the pharmacist must still apply his or her knowledge to formulating, storing, and dispensing drugs. Pharmacists are qualified to answer most medical or drug-related questions you may have. They can explain what each medication is for, how to take it, and what side effects you might expect. They can also help you understand how to best manage your condition or illness and provide advice on leading a healthy lifestyle. Your pharmacist can offer you advice and information about disease prevention, diet, exercise, smoking cessation and diabetes management. They can also advise you on whether any nutritional supplements you are taking or planning to take might interfere with your prescribed medicine. In addition to verifying prescriptions, pharmacies can also help you get the flu vaccine and other vaccinations. They can also give you advice and guidance about leading a healthier life, such as how to stop smoking, lose weight and reduce your alcohol consumption. Some pharmacies specialise in certain conditions, such as cardiovascular disease or men’s health. Others have a more general focus, such as children’s health, or older people’s health. Many also stock a wide range of over-the-counter medicines, such as painkillers and antibiotics. There are pharmacies that operate on a virtual basis, offering customers the convenience of ordering and receiving their medication without having to leave home. This business model is particularly attractive for those with limited mobility or who find it difficult to travel. It is also an excellent option for those who have forgotten to order their refills or who are unable to get out due to weather. Online pharmacies typically process orders within a few days and deliver them to your door. They are reliable and safe, although it is important to check that they adhere to your country’s laws on how long they must keep your records for. They must also comply with your State’s requirements on continuing education and recertification. There are a number of pharmacies online, but it is essential that you choose one that is legitimate and offers customer support in case of any problems. It is best to choose an online pharmacy that can be contacted by telephone and has dedicated customer service representatives who are available twenty-four hours a day. In addition, it is a good idea to read reviews before choosing an online pharmacy to make sure that they have the highest quality products and services. These companies should also have a secure website that is easy to navigate.

Cancer Information This article describes what cancer is, how it develops and how different types of cancer are treated. It also discusses how a healthy lifestyle can help prevent some types of cancer. Cancer is a disease that occurs when cells in the body start to grow and divide out of control. These abnormal cells can invade nearby tissues and spread to other parts of the body through the bloodstream or lymphatic system. Cancer can be cured or controlled with surgery, radiation and chemotherapy. Some types of cancer can be prevented by eating a balanced diet, exercising regularly, avoiding tobacco and limiting the amount of alcohol consumed. Cancer occurs when genes in cells change or break down. Genes are the blueprints that control how the body grows and repairs itself. When genes change, they stop the cell from dividing normally or from repairing itself when damaged. Over time, cancer cells can build up and form a mass of tissue called a tumor. The cancer may be benign or malignant (cancerous). Benign tumors do not spread. But malignant cancers can spread to other parts of the body. Once they get there, they can spread into other organs and tissues by pushing on the normal cells around them. This process is called local invasion or metastasis. The cancer can also spread to other parts of the body when it breaks away from the original mass and travels through the blood or lymphatic system to another area. Whenever possible, doctors try to cure cancer. If a cancer cannot be cured, doctors treat it to keep it from growing or spreading and to relieve symptoms. A cancer treatment plan includes primary and adjuvant treatments. Adjuvant treatments are used after the primary treatment to kill any remaining cancer cells and reduce the chances that the cancer will recur. Examples of adjuvant therapies include radiation therapy, chemotherapy and hormone therapy. Surgery removes a tumor or part of a tumor. It is the most common form of cancer treatment. Doctors can remove cancerous and noncancerous tissue with a scalpel or other sharp tool, or with a laser or another type of device. Surgery can be done in the hospital or at home. Chemotherapy uses strong medicines to kill cancer cells or slow their growth. These medicines can be given by vein (IV), in a pill or liquid that you swallow or as a cream that you put on the skin. Radiation therapy uses high-energy rays to kill cancer cells or to shrink them. It can be delivered from a machine outside the body (external beam radiation) or from a small machine placed inside your body, such as in your chest or abdomen (brachytherapy). Hormone therapy blocks the production of certain hormones that can help cancer cells grow. It is often used to treat breast and prostate cancer. Bone marrow transplant replaces bone marrow with healthy stem cells to replace those that have been destroyed by high doses of chemotherapy or radiation.

Medicine is the science and practice of caring for a patient, managing the diagnosis, prognosis, prevention, treatment, palliation of their disease or injury and promoting their health. The term medicine includes a variety of healing interventions, including prescription drugs and surgery, as well as a patient-centered approach to care that encompasses psychosocial aspects. It is considered a regulated profession in many countries. Medical doctors must undergo extensive education, training and professional development to become licensed or registered as physicians. This is intended to protect patients from charlatans that offer unproven treatments, as well as to encourage physicians to use evidence-based medicine and follow the Hippocratic Oath, which states: “First, do no harm”. Modern health care relies on teams of highly educated professionals besides medical practitioners. These include nurses, emergency medical technicians and paramedics, laboratory scientists, pharmacists, physiotherapists, occupational therapists, speech therapists, respiratory therapists, dietitians, radiographers, physiologists and bioengineers. Medical students and residents spend a significant amount of time learning the specialized vocabulary used in these fields. This vocabulary is often based on Latin and ancient Greek roots and suffixes, and consists of prefixes that indicate location, direction, type or quality, and root words with meanings related to anatomy or disease processes. The practice of medicine is governed by a code of ethics, which typically includes the principles of beneficence (do no harm), justice and non-maleficence. Doctors who violate these codes may be subject to civil, criminal or professional sanctions. A record of a person’s health, including information about their family’s history of diseases, illnesses and surgeries. Also called a medical chart or personal health record. Health coverage provided by an insurance company in exchange for a premium, or by an employer or union as part of a benefits package. Also called a health insurance policy or group plan. Medications and surgical procedures are important tools in the diagnosis, treatment and cure of many diseases and injuries. Medications are used to treat symptoms and prevent or cure illness, and surgical procedures are carried out to repair damaged tissues or organs and to remove extra tissue, such as for biopsy. Medical research is an ever-changing field, driven by technology and discoveries in molecular biology, genomics and evolution. These advances are enabling new and better medicines to be developed, and they are changing the way that doctors practise. For example, some of the most recent advances in medical technology have been directed towards developing drugs that are specific to physiological targets and that are designed for compatibility with human metabolism in order to reduce side-effects. These drugs are now being combined with genetic and genomic information to develop personalised medicine for individual patients. These developments are also influencing the way that doctors practise and make decisions. In addition, behavioural sciences such as psychology and sociology are contributing to the understanding of how patients respond to treatment and what factors influence their decisions and behaviours. This is helping to improve patient outcomes and satisfaction, and increase the effectiveness of healthcare delivery overall.

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Health is a state of physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. The enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of health is one of the fundamental rights of every human being without distinction of any group or individual, irrespective of age, sex, religion, political belief, economic situation or any other circumstance. A wide variety of definitions of Health exist, reflecting the many ways in which the concept has been elaborated. The plurality of these definitions also reflects the fact that health is a socially and culturally constructed phenomenon, with each person constructing their own interpretation of health according to their personal circumstances. Health is a concept that is constantly being redefined, just as the concepts of disease and illness have been continually modified. Traditionally, the term Health was viewed as a state of being in which an individual could function independently and efficiently. However, the development of modern medicine brought a shift in this perception. In 1948, the World Health Organization included a definition of health in its Constitution: “The enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of physical, mental and social well-being is a fundamental right of all individuals without distinction of any kind, whether based on race, colour, sex, language, religion or nationality. This includes the right to freedom from fear and want, as well as access to public services and a clean environment.” As a result of this shift in perception, there is now a more holistic approach to the notion of health. For example, the health promotion movement has defined health as the individual’s ability to realize aspirations and satisfy needs in their context, including both the animate and inanimate aspects of their environment, such as the quality of air, the availability of drugs and treatments, and their social culture. The lay perspective on Health is characterized by wholeness, pragmatism and individualism. The concept of health is viewed as an aspect interwoven with other aspects of life such as family functioning, working capacity and the quality of social relationships. It is also seen as a relative phenomenon: the meaning of health depends on what an individual perceives as reasonable to expect given his or her age and medical conditions. It is also important to know one’s values and personal expectations. The lay perspective on Health also emphasizes the importance of a healthy diet. It is recommended to eat a variety of foods and to avoid those high in fat, salt and sugar. It is also important to consume plenty of vegetables, fruits, and whole grains. When eating out, try to avoid dishes with fatty meat and heavy sauces or salad dressings. Instead, choose lean meats, skinless chicken breast, fish, and vegetables. Consuming a variety of foods helps prevent obesity and promotes good nutrition. In addition, exercise is an essential component to maintaining a healthy lifestyle. It improves mental and emotional health and can also help alleviate stress. It is recommended to get at least 30 minutes of moderate exercise five days a week.

Pharmacy is a profession that has been in existence for thousands of years. In fact, some of the oldest pharmacies in Europe still operate today. For example, the Santa Maria Novella pharmacy in Florence dates back to 1221, and the Lowen-Apotheke in Trier is believed to be the oldest active pharmacy in Germany. These ancient pharmacies were established in a time when the art of healing was already well-established. They were able to establish a moral professional identity for themselves as they are the gatekeepers to safe drug usage. The emergence of online pharmacies, however, has changed the way consumers buy their medicines. These virtual pharmacies offer a wide range of pharmaceutical products and dispense prescriptions. They are also known for offering lower prices than brick-and-mortar pharmacies. They are able to offer these lower prices because they do not have to pay for the cost of a physical store or a sales team. Whether it is the Amazon suggestion of dog food or the subscription model for apps, the idea of paying a monthly fee for something has become more common. This is especially true in the world of pharmacy, where online pharmacies offer a subscription model for certain maintenance medications. These services are designed to help patients manage their medications and improve their health. In addition to providing medication, pharmacies are a source of valuable health information for the public. They can provide advice on a variety of topics, including how to use your medication, concerns about side effects and general health issues. In some cases, they can refer you to a doctor or update your medical records. They can also help you get rid of any unused or unwanted medicine. Many people find it difficult to travel to a brick-and-mortar pharmacy. Taking the bus or arranging a ride with family and friends can be challenging, and it may not always be possible to get there at a convenient time. In these situations, an online pharmacy can be an invaluable resource. In addition to allowing people to shop from the comfort of their homes, these virtual pharmacies can also make it easier for people with limited mobility or who are homebound to receive the health care they need. The question of whether pharmacy is a knowledge-based profession is an important one for the field of healthcare. This is because it has implications for how much emphasis should be placed on educating future pharmacists to discover and utilize new knowledge as part of their practice. The answer, however, is more complicated than a simple yes or no. In order to fully assess whether or not a profession is knowledge-based, it is necessary to understand how different types of knowledge are used within that field. For example, a teacher of chemistry must have subject-specific knowledge about the topic she is teaching and pedagogical knowledge on how to teach it effectively. The same is true for a pharmacist who must have pharmaceutical knowledge regarding the drugs that are being prescribed to her patients.

Cancer is a disease that can start in almost any part of the body. It is the result of changes (mutations) in genes. Genes are the instructions that control how cells grow, repair themselves and decide whether to live or die. Cells that don’t follow the normal controls and multiply out of control can lead to cancer. Cancer can also spread from where it started to other parts of the body. The most common types of cancer are breast, prostate, lung and colorectal cancer. But cancers can occur in many different parts of the body, and they can be found in any age group. Fortunately, cancers caught early are treatable. Cancers that are treated successfully can often be cured. Cancers that aren’t treated as quickly as they should be can be fatal. There are many types of cancer treatment. Your doctor will recommend a treatment plan for your type of cancer and how far it has spread. Treatment may include surgery, chemotherapy and/or radiation therapy. Some people are given a drug that boosts the body’s natural defences against cancer (immunotherapy). Normally, genes make sure cells grow and divide to produce new cells at the right time. But mutations in genes can cause normal controls to break down and cells to keep dividing when they shouldn’t or stop producing new cells when the body doesn’t need them. These abnormal cells build up until they form a mass of abnormal cells that is a tumor. Cancers can be either benign (not dangerous) or malignant (cancerous). A malignant tumor will invade surrounding tissues and can spread to other parts of the body through the blood or lymph system. A benign tumor will not invade surrounding tissues and is unlikely to spread. Doctors use a variety of tests to diagnose cancer, including blood and urine tests, X-rays and CT scans. A biopsy is a tissue sample that doctors examine to find out what kind of cancer you have and how far it has spread. If cancer is diagnosed, doctors can use the results of your tests and the biopsy to decide on a treatment plan. Some cancer treatments are targeted, which means they focus on the genetic changes that help cancer cells grow and change. Other cancer treatments use high-energy particles (proton or particle therapy) or waves (radiation therapy) to kill cancer cells and reduce the chances of them coming back. Some cancers are caused by viruses, bacteria and parasites, such as the human papilloma virus, Epstein-Barr virus, Kaposi’s sarcoma-associated herpesvirus and Merkel cell polyomavirus. Vaccines are being developed to prevent these infections from turning into cancer. Other cancers are caused by lifestyle factors, such as tobacco and excessive drinking. Scientists are working to develop vaccines against HPV, asbestos and certain chemicals that increase a person’s risk of developing cancer. Other preventive measures include regular screenings and a healthy diet.

Medicine is the art and science of treating disease through surgery, therapies, medications and other remedies. It is a vast field that includes many different specialties, each of which focus on particular parts of the body or specific diseases or conditions. Physicians are trained in internal medicine (which covers a broad range of diseases and disorders), which may be subdivided into several subspecialties such as cardiology, gastroenterology, endocrinology, gynecology, infectious disease, nephrology, neurology, pulmonology, radiology, rheumatology, sports medicine, and urology. Medical anthropology is the study of the way culture and society are organized around health, illness and medicine. Historically, prehistoric medicine incorporated plant and animal parts (herbalism), spiritual systems such as animism and the Greek “four humours”, and other traditions including divination, magic and alchemy. Modern scientific biomedical research replaced prehistoric beliefs with a systematic, testable approach to health and disease, and the modern discipline of medicine was born. In the early 1700s, Edward Jenner developed the first vaccine for smallpox, and in the 1800s Robert Koch discovered bacteria and began antibiotics. Today, modern medicine is based on a variety of clinical sciences, such as epidemiology and public health, which deal with the diagnosis, prevention, control and surveillance of disease in populations; biomedical engineering, which involves applying engineering principles to medical problems; and biology, which studies the structure and function of living organisms. Medicine is also influenced by sociology, psychology and philosophy. During a medical consultation, the patient typically presents with what is called their chief complaint or their symptom. The healthcare provider gathers a detailed medical history and performs a physical examination of the patient. The patient is asked about their current symptoms, past illnesses and treatments, family medical history, as well as lifestyle habits such as diet and exercise. A blood sample and other diagnostic tests are often collected at this point. The information gathered during the consultation is used to make a differential diagnosis, which is a list of possible causes of the patient’s illness. The medical team then uses the data to decide on a treatment plan, which may involve medicines, surgical procedures, lifestyle interventions or other modalities of care. The final decision is based on the most likely cause of the symptoms in light of the patient’s general health, age, gender, and family medical history. A treatment plan is usually documented in a patient’s medical record. The patient’s progress is monitored and modified at subsequent appointments. The medical process is also influenced by health care systems, which establish legal, credentialing and funding frameworks for the practice of medicine. These vary widely across the world, with some countries having universal healthcare and others not. Medical research is ongoing to improve diagnostic techniques, treatments and the understanding of health and disease. The field of genetics has had an enormous influence on medicine, as the causative genes for many monogenic diseases have been identified. With advances in computing and imaging, medical technology has expanded rapidly. It is now possible for a physician to perform virtual consultations with patients.